Critical Evaluation Of Ethnography And Grounded Theory

Critical Evaluation Of Ethnography And Grounded Theory It is obvious that research is an important element of our everyday life. Research is everywhere we go; it is background of everything we face in our present time like for example management, marketing or finance. There are two main streams of performing a particular research; it is qualitative method which is based mostly of words and statements or quantitative which involves statistics and empirical evidence. Two out of three most frequently discussed qualitative approaches which are grounded theory, ethnography and phenomenology would be discussed in this paper (Avis, 2003). In the first part of this paper I am about to discuss the main idea of ethnography. I am going to discover what is it and I would talk about the methods of research ethnographers use in order to get information they need, for making a relative conclusion. In addition, in this research paper I would to talk about what are the problems the researchers face in obtaining and evaluating obtained observations. This part would present several example of how this method could be applied in everyday life. Second part would show the differences between two approaches ethnography and positivism approach. The purpose of this part is to show the understanding of ethnographic research method from positivist perspective. Third part of this research paper would debate about second most frequently discussed qualitative approach, grounded theory. What is it, what are main notions of this research method? Moreover, I would discuss main methods and techniques of this research and the areas where it is usually applied. In addition I would pay attention on the methods of hypothesis formation and testing. In fourth part I would discuss grounded theory method from positivist point of view. I would argue why this research method would not suit positivists requirements. My argument would present the examples of how certain grounded theory research could be performed from positivist point of view. Last but not least, this research paper would present differences between two most frequent qualitative research methods, grounded theory and ethnography. Ethnography In general ethnography is a qualitative research method that recognized as a participant observation, it is the method where researcher contributes his or her time examining, communicating or cooperating with a social group. By observing and communicating with a social group researcher could understand how a particular group ties their relationships among each other, how a particular culture was built and maintained in order to keep social group together (Brown-Saracino, Thurk, Fine, 2008). Making research ethnographers mostly focused on actions and intentions of the social group. Researcher observing the social group on daily bases tries to understand what idea is behind of a particular deed or objective (Herbert, 2000). By getting new information about the group, understanding what they take for granted, ethnographer could identify structure of their actions. Detailed examination of the groups behavior on daily basis separates ethnography from other qualitative researches, like in terviews (Power, 2002). Any group of persons prisoners, primitives, pilots or patients develops a life of their own that becomes meaningful, reasonable, and normal once you get close to it, and a good way to learn about any of these worlds is to submit oneself in the company of the members to the daily round of petty contingencies to which they are subject (Goffman, 1961, pp. 9-10). There are various methods which researchers use in order to get a data about a particular group. One of the best examples of how ethnographer could participate in a groups activities is research made by Burawoy (1979), he worked as a machine operator for ten months in a Chicago factory in order to answer the question, why workers of the factory do not work harder. Some researchers were trying to achieve more close relationships with the groups of study; however, some relationships are unchangeable. Ethnographers usually balance between being insider and outsider, they are trying to see everything through the eyes of the social group ethnographers trying to analyze and in the same time trying to see whole picture in general applying theories (Taber, 2010). According to Power (2002) ethnographer has to maintain two positions at the same time. One, he or she has to be a good actor, who can engage obtained information in ongoing interaction. Second, has to be rational and logical scienti st to correctly interpret obtained information. Interviews, surveys and questioners are completely different from ethnography because rather than to examine what people say, ethnographers examine both what people say and do. There is huge gap between described relationships and reality. The fact that ethnographer can differentiate between deeds and words make ethnography more informative methodology (Liebow, 1967). Furthermore, ethnography involves more emotions and feelings. By getting inside of the social group researchers has to change his or her habits, sights and tastes. It is also an important factor in evaluation of observations (Dennison, Wintrob, Brunt, 1972). The research made by Herbert (2000) in Los Angeles Police Department involved emotional responds because witnessing of suicide had a huge impact on him and this changed the observation results. Because of emotional effect, policemans job appeared to him very tough and only for people with strong heart. Ethnography from positivists perspective. Looking on ethnographic methodology from positivist point of view, we can agree and disagree in certain extent with ethnographers epistemology. First of all, both of them, ethnographers and positivists, make some kind of observations in order to get information. However, the information ethnographers get is completely different from what positivists trying to achieve in their research. As it was mentioned before ethnography uses observations and involvement methods in order to understand what is the culture and behavior of the social group. Taking as example the experience of Burawoy (1979), ethnographer who entered society of factory workers to obtain information about why workers do not work harder. The idea of research made by Burawoy was to see the world through the eyes of those workers he was working with, understand their feelings and emotions. Whereas, positivist researcher would not try to put him or herself in shoes of another person he or she would rather employ empirical analysis in this case and for example would pay attention on such factors as what is the duration of working day, how often workers have to stay overtime, how often workers go out to smoke or everything that affects workers productivity. According to Trochim (2006) the idea of positivism is to focus on what we could examine and evaluate, everything that goes outside of this scope is considered as impossible. Also Silverman (1998) stated that there is no agreed doctrine underlying all qualitative social research. Ethnographers do not have certain rule to perform their analysis, while positivists follow certain set of rules during analysis (Avis, 2003). Date collection is general aspect of qualitative research mostly in form of words and statements, and the method of analysis they use do not involve statistics or empirical analysis (Cepeda Martine, 2005). In above paragraph I was giving the example of research made by Herbert (2000) who went to analyze policemens job. He was saying that case of suicide terrified him so much that his emotions affected his conclusion about his research. In case of positivism this is not acceptable; positivism states that this is only one truth (Somers, 1998). In case of positivism there cannot be to different interpretation of same results. Moreover, if pay attention on the speed of research performance, positivists would say that ethnography is not efficient methodology. In order to get information ethnographer has to go inside of the company and spend ten, like in case of (Burawoy, 1979), or more month in order to obtain observations from a group of people. Whereas, positivists could obtain information of the whole company roughly in same period of time. Positivism covers bigger sample size rather than ethnography (Amaratunga, Baldry, Sarshar, Newton, 2002). Grounded theory Originally, grounded theory was introduced by Barney Glaser and Anselm Strauss in 1967 (Strauss Corbin, 1998).Grounded theory was developed by leaning on the experience which they had in one of the Chicago school and also by taking into account the criticism; they developed their own strategy of data analysis (Glaser Strauss, 1967). Design of the research frequently relies on the reviewing literature which leads to formation of hypothesis. After this, hypothesis would be tested in the real world. Whereas grounded theory examines the realities and analyses the data without any hypothesis (Glaser Strauss, 1967). In the qualitative research the analysis of data can be described differently as the result of an interpretivist point of view on a certain event or action. In grounded theory the analysis of data includes searching for concepts which are behind the reality, by searching for codes, concepts and categories. Creation of the grounded theory passes three stages induction, deduc tion and verification (Strauss, 1987), each of them are absolutely important to formation of the new theory. Also it is important to notice that all three stages, according to Strauss, will be involved in research not consistently, and to some extent are present at each stage of research. To make the construction of theory more systematized, Glazer and Strauss offer several necessary strategies of the analysis in qualitative research. Firstly, analytical process must alternate with process of gathering information or even to go in parallel with it. Secondly, observance of this principle allows to create theoretical sampling in the process of research, purpose of which, is to represent not the investigated group of people (object of research), but the aspects, properties of characteristic or quality of the investigated phenomenon (subject of research). Theoretical sample is a process of data gathering for theory generating by means of which the analyst collects, unites, codes, analyzes the data and decide, what of them to collect at a following stage and where to search for them to develop the theory in process of occurrence. This process of data gathering is supervised by the appearing theory (Glaser Strauss, 1967). Thirdly, to make a continuous comparative analysis, this could be used at different stages of analytical process. Defining the place of the comparative analysis, in the developed methodological field, authors place it between two basic strategies, the approaches of the analysis. The first approach is the content-analysis at first the coding model must be set, and then data must be gathered regularly, estimated and analyzed on in advance certain, invariable and uniform scales for all of them which allow to give to the qualitative data, quantitative form. On the basis of the new structured data file by means of numerical model are proved preliminary put forward hypotheses (are accepted or denied). Glazer and Strauss connect second approach with a situation when it is necessary to develop some preliminary ideas or hypotheses. In this case operation of detailed coding can slow down the achievement of the objective, therefore the analyst only looks through the data for a finding of new properties of theoretical categories and writes memo s about these properties (Glaser Strauss, 1967). Such approach describes more likely an initial stage of coding and for theory construction is insufficient, as constant transformation and reintegration of the data in process of accumulation and the material review in the latter case is required. And the third corresponds to this problem, offered by authors, the approach. It connects in analytical procedures of constant comparison procedure of the developed coding the first and style of development of the theory of the second. The purpose of a method of constant comparison in which coding and the analysis, theory generating are united more regularly, than is supposed in the second approach, by means of use of the developed coding and analytical procedures. Being more systematized, than the second approach, a method of constant comparisons at the same time is not connected and with the first which is developed for preliminary testing, instead of theory opening. Grounded theory from positivists perspective. In my opinion from positivism point of view grounded theory is not quite correct decision for theory deducing. Strauss mentioned that in some cases it is better to start the research with an initial hypothesis which can be changed or evaluate during the research (Glaser Strauss, 1967). In this case I think that the initial idea can be lost which has been introduced originally in the research. Whereas from the positivists point of view the theory or hypothesis must be suggested and only then it must be tested, without changing its initially idea (Trochim, 2006). The result of this test should confirm or deny this theory or hypothesis. Use of grounded theory is useful in area as medicine; many researchers use the given approach for research of this area. For instance grounded theory was used in order to understand how Medical Family Therapy helps patients to deal with complex family dynamics that usually happens after hospitalization, also the therapy was directed to help people to av oid next hospitalization (Anderson, Huff, Hodgson, 2008). In addition, as it was mentioned by (Trochim, 2006) positivist seeking to find one single truth, whereas one of the parts of the grounded theory research is coding the possible answers of participant, this is a certain type of interpretation due to the fact that every single researcher codes information in a unique way which is not acceptable by positivist researcher (Allan, 2003). Similarities and Differences of Grounded Theory and Ethnography. Grounded theory and ethnography can be very compatible; as ethnographic studies may give the wide explanation which can be extremely valuable data, for grounded theory analysis (Glaser Strauss, 1967). Some of these compatibilities came from the similarities in the characteristics of these two approaches. Ethnography is observing and analyzing behavior in natural conditions and the grounded theory makes collecting of data in the natural conditions too. Also there are similarities in backgrounds, both grounded theory and ethnography came from sociology, but in addition to ethnography it has also anthropological background. The main focus of this approaches are different where grounded theory stands for developing the theory whereas ethnography describing and interpreting a culture. In data collection both approaches gather information through different kinds of interviews, but ethnography moved beyond using observations of other (Creswell, 2006). Conclusion In this coursework I talk about two qualitative approaches ethnography and grounded theory. These two approaches are used in many areas of our life. They help us to justify some undiscovered phenomenas that we face. They both have similarities and differences which makes them unique in certain areas. As it was mentions above ethnography focuses on describing and interpretation of culture of the certain group of people. Whereas, grounded theory is used to grounding the theory in the view of people (Creswell, 2006). I looked on these two qualitative approaches from the perspective of positivist. I found that mostly positivism do not support both of them. In my opinion both of this approaches are time consuming in discovering certain hypothesis or theory. Also, as it was mentioned above positivists are seeking for single truth, whereas in both qualitative approaches, grounded theory and ethnography, could be found multiple truths depending on research emotions, feelings and understandings. In addition, I mentioned that one more criteria that is used by positivists comparing to grounded theory and ethnography which is statistical or empirical data analysis. Only because both qualitative approaches use mostly words and statements positivists could reject such evidence.

Representation of a Great Ruler :: Queen Elizabeth Ruler Essays

Representation of a Great Ruler In such a tumultuous time of England’s history, a ruler that could protect his people and also give them intellectual stimulation was no easy task. However, this is what the people expected from their ruler. This emblem is a basic representation of what the English people valued from the people that ruled them. The title says it all. â€Å"A Princes most ennobling Parts,/ Are Skill in Armes and Love to Arts.† If someone took this emblem and changed all the words from â€Å"he† to â€Å"she,† and then replaced the words â€Å"prince† to â€Å"queen,† we would have a perfect description of Queen Elizabeth I and what made her so great. Before we go into the text, it is worth analyzing the picture of the emblem. Though the huge discrepancy is that it is a man in the picture, there are still many parallels we can draw between him and Elizabeth. Appearance wise, the man in this picture seems to have a regal robe on, but pants that look like tattered rags. Making the comparison with Elizabeth, one can point out the time that she spent in prison. She had to don rags for a while, and then when she was released, she was made queen and she got to wear royal, exquisite dresses. In the picture, the man has a sword in his right hand and a book in his left. Obviously, the sword represents the military might and physical strength. The book represents wisdom and knowledge. Though it is at an angle, it still seems that the man is holding the book higher than the sword, showing that they value a wise ruler more than a mighty one. A great ruler however, must contain both of these qualities to be successful. After the emblem, we get a poem about qualities the people desire in their ruler. As stated earlier, from what we know of Elizabeth, this poem describes her qualities well. Before Elizabeth, England was in constant war with Protestants and Catholics fighting each other for power. In this time of constant conflict, the people looked for a ruler that would bring them tranquility.

Unilever

The In practice structure was having too much reliant on primary sales and relations with trade and coverage was not extensive to deliver the desired results. A new distribution structure was needed. Ha launched a project which was named ‘FERREIRA' (taken from the brand of car which symbolizes for outstanding performance with fastest speed, premium image). Hash's Background Muscular Hal joined Milliner In 1983 In Its Research Department. Alumni of Boston university, Hal was fortunate to move into new assignments after every three to four years. Hash's real success came as Marketing Manager and she was posted to theHeadquarters in detergents coordination for East Asia Pacific and Africa/Middle East region. Her exposure of more than 30 countries improved her strategic thinking. Hash's strength was her unwavering focus, determined attitude and high level of energy. On these strengths Ha was made chairman PULP In 2001 to add vitality to the untapped potential of Pakistan. Disposabl e Income In Pakistan economy was Increasing as political conditions Improved and economy showed vibrancy. Scenario at Milliner Pakistan PULP was going through post merger synergy after the acquisition of Polka and Orphan Best Foods (REF).Ha and her team with their vision started off by analyzing the industry and emerging markets. They found out that new Innovation levels were needed. Previously companies were able to achieve global leadership by acquisitions and concentration on core brands and categories. Also further cost cutting was not possible from global purchasing and growth cannot be fueled solely from centralized supply chain or information technology. This case was written by Zinnia Khan under the supervision of Mr.. Keelhaul Named, Faculty CB as the basis for class discussion rather to illustrate either effective or ineffective handling of an administrative issue.For confidentially reasons dates, figures & some facts have been hypothesized but without distorting the learn ing on processes. The consumer industry in the emerging markets needed the local touch. The success formula required innovation in value creation and service levels. PULP with the help of Malaysia, Bangladesh and Brazil. They concluded that companies which lacked service levels could not achieve the success they had aimed at. Also only innovations in the service levels to the retailers and customers increased returns for the companies.Hence, the distribution model had to be redesigned and its structure was studied in four domains namely: 1 Geographic Distribution 2 Distributor Operations 3 Sales Hierarchy, and 4 Sales Monitoring System and Reporting. Company Background PULP formerly Lever Brothers Pakistan Limited was established in Pakistan in 1958. The town of Ihram Khan was the site chosen for setting up a vegetable oil factory. Milliner Pakistan is the largest FMC company in Pakistan as well as one of the largest multinationals operating in the country now operating with six fac tories located at different locations around the country.Its head office was shifted to Karachi from Ihram Khan in mid ass's. Business Areas Restructuring and consolidating activities at Milliner includes the decision to sell or withdraw many brands and concentrate on those with the biggest potential. Restructuring created the following core business areas: 1 Home and Personal Care 2 Foods 3 Beverages 4 Ice Creams 5 Best Foods Meeting every day needs of nutrition, hygiene and personal care Milliner has the following distribution of share in its product portfolio: Home Care Personal care Ice cream Beverages Spreads Savory & Dressing 26 16 8 11 100% 2 MissionLeading consumer Product Company in Pakistan, a multinational with deeps roots in the country. Attract and develop highly talented people to empower double digit growth Serve the everyday needs for foods, hygiene and beauty of all consumers Produce breakthrough innovation in brands and channel Managing responsive supply chain maxi mize value from suppliers to customers Exemplary through commitment to business ethics, safety, health, environment and involvement in the community Conventional System of Sales & Distribution Conventional system of distribution of sales in the company was focused primarily awards urban market.The growing rural and suburban markets were being ignored in terms of needed attention to get improved results. Primary sales and quantitative achievements were the key objectives and accountability in the sales team. Geographic distribution Pakistan was divided into three regions namely, Karachi, Lahore city and Islamabad. Karachi region covered Karachi, Hydrated, few cities of Shins rural, Lower Punjab e. G. , Umlaut and Coastal belt and parts of Balloonists province. Karachi contributed 25% in the overall sales and 20% of the coverage was done by Karachi.Karachi region had 82 distributors to manage. Most distributors were sole distributors of Milliner and credit was given to these distribut ors. Lahore city covered Lahore and nearby towns. Lahore had the biggest potential in terms of sales. The population was concentrated and dense. Lahore had 34 distributors to manage. Islamabad region had a vast area to cover but had less potential as compared to Lahore. It covered Islamabad, NFW and northern cities of Punjab. It had 57 Sales Hierarchy Sales hierarchy consisted of Director C&CD, National Sales Manager (NSA), threeRegional Sales Managers, 20 Area Managers and 45 Field Managers. Field Managers used to report to their Area Managers. Field Managers looked after corporate business which means managing all categories. In the urban cities, Field Managers had only one distributor under its control. However, in the rural towns one Field Manager used to look after 13, 15 or even 22 distributors at one point in time. Field Manager's responsibility was to verify distributor's redistribution claims. Administrative and commercial documentation was heavy in his Job description. Eve n at times Field 3

How Do You Ensure Pupils Understand Explanations

Seminar Paper 1 How do you ensure that pupils understand explanations ? The purpose of this essay is to look at the ways in which a child retains information, how that information is processed and the possible barriers involved. There will be some focus on the theories of learning and the strategies and practices employed in the classroom. At this juncture it must be stated that ‘ensuring’ may be an ambiguous word, and that ‘enabling’ the understanding may be more precise, as no matter how vociferous the intention to ‘ensure’ there will always be pupils who fall through the net or may even have developed their own strategies to cope with not understanding yet leading the teacher to believe they have. Surely the answer to this†¦show more content†¦A valid statement that is underpinned by most theorists who believe that cognitive understanding relates to developmental stages in age and maturity. Piaget believed that learning was supported by action. That thought is developed by experiencing and active experimenting. With the knowledge of all the impediments in place let us know consider the classroom strategies available. A tried and tested method is to ask the pupils what they think their course of action will be. For example ‘what do you think I want you to do when you have read through the text?’. (Case, 2010). This in itself for some, may take some coding and decoding and therefore present vast possibilities of misunderstanding (Denby, 2012). Obviously the message has to be first ‘coded’ by the teacher , in other words putting it into a form that can be understood, this may be visual or written. As many theorists claim however, interpretation of the spoken word is not only auditory. Approximately 35% of meaning is in the way it is actually said and a further 55% in body language and facial expression (Mehrabian, 1971). Highlighting as previously mentioned the importance of the positioning of the teacher in the room and the classroom layout. If the pupils cannot see the teacher, they may miss important facets of the instruction that will then mean them having to fill in the gaps by guessing. As Piaget states ‘ learning is a process of active discovery’ (Piaget sited MacNaughton, 2003). As teachers thereShow MoreRelatedUnit 304 Promote Children and Young People’s Positive Behaviour1100 Words   |  5 Pagespolicy has high expectations for both staff and pupils, I have highlighted the expectations in my policy attached, see DKB 1 and DKB 2. b) Rewards and sanctions See level 2 c) Dealing with conflict and inappropriate behaviour See level 2 d) Anti bullying We have a detailed policy regarding anti bullying which explains what bullying is, why it is important to respond to bullying, signs and symptoms of bullying and how to handle it. 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